Particle Size Measurement Powder Technology Series

technology: Particle Size Measurement Powder Technology Series

• Acknowledgements
• Preface to the the fifth edition
• Preface to the the first edition
• Editor's foreword
• 1 Powder sampling
• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 Sample selection
• 1.3 Sampling stored material
• 1.3.1 Sampling stored non-flowing
• material
• 1.3.2 Sampling stored free-flowing
• material
• 1.4 Sampling flowing streams
• 1.4.1 Sampling from a conveyor belt
• 1.4.2 Point samplers
• 1.4.3 Sampling from falling streams
• 1.4.4 Stream sampling ladles
• 1.4.5 Traversing cutters
• 1.4.6 Sampling dusty material
• 1.4.7 Moving flap sampler
• 1.5 Sample reduction
• 1.5.1 Scoop sampling
• 1.5.2 Cone and quartering
• 1.5.3 Table sampling
• 1.5.4 Chute splitting
• 1.5.5 The rotary sample divider
• 1.5.6 Miscellaneous sampling devices
• 1.6 Slurry sampling
• 1.7 Reduction of laboratory sample to
• measurement sample
• 1.8 Number of samples required
• 1.9 Theoretical statistical errors on a number basis
• 1.10 Practical statistical errors on a number basis
• 1.11 Theoretical statistical errors on a weight basis
• 1.12 Practical statistical errors on a weight basis
• 1.13 Experimental tests of sampling techniques
• 1.14 Weight of sample required
• 1.14.1 Gross sample
• 1.14.2 Sampling by increments
• 2 Data presentation and interpretation
• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Particle size
• 2.3 Average diameters
• 2.4 Particle dispersion
• 2.5 Particle shape
• 2.5.1 Shape coefficients
• 2.5.2 Shape factors
• 2.5.3 Shape regeneration by Fourier analysis
• 2.5.4 Fractal dimensions
• characterization of textured surfaces
• 2.5.5 Other methods of shape analysis
• 2.5.6 Sorting by shape
• 2.6 Determination of specific surface from
• size distribution data
• 2.6.1 from a number count
• 2.6.2 from a surface count
• 2.6.3 from a volume (mass) count
• 2.7 Tabular presentation of particle size
• distribution
• 2.8 Graphical presentation of size
• distribution data
• 2.8.1 Presentation on linear graph paper
• 2.9 Standard forms of distribution functions
• 2.10 Arithmetic normal distribution
• 2.10.1 Manipulation of the normal equation
• 2.11 The log-normal distribution
• 2.11.1 Relationship between number mean
• sizes for a log-normal distribution
• 2.11.2 Derived mean sizes
• 2.11.3 Transformation between log-normal
• distributions
• 2.11.4 Relationship between median and
• mode of a log-normal equation
• 2.11.5 An improved equation and graph
• paper for log-normal evaluations
• 2.11.6 Application
• 2.12 Johnson's SB distribution
• 2.13 Rosin-Rammler, Bennet-Sperling formula
• 2.14 Other distribution laws
• 2.14.1 Simplification of two-parameter equations
• 2.14.2 Comments
• 2.15 The law of compensating errors
• 2.16 Evaluation of non linear
• distributions on log-normal paper
• 2.16.1 Bimodal intersecting distributions
• 2.16.2 Bimodal non-intersecting
• distributions
• 2.16.3 Other distributions
• 2.16.4 Applications of log-normal plots
• 2.16.5 Curve fitting
• 2.17 Alternative notations for frequency
• distribution
• 2.17.1 Notation
• 2.17.2 Moment of a distribution
• 2.17.3 Transformation from qt(x) to qr(x).
• 2.17.4 Relation between moments
• 2.17.5 Means of distributions
• 2.17.6 Standard deviations
• 2.17.7 Coefficient of variation
• 2.17.8 Applications
• 2.17.9 Transformation of abscissae
• 2.18 Phi-notation
• 3 Particle size by image analysis
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.2 Optical microscopy
• 3.2.1 Upper size limit
• 3.2.2 Lower size limit
• 3.3 Sample preparation
• 3.4 Measurement of plane sections through packed beds
• 3.5 Particle size
• 3.6 Calibration
• 3.6.1 Linear eyepiece graticules
• 3.6.2 Globe and circle graticules
• 3.7 Training of operators
• 3.8 Experimental techniques
• 3.9 Determination of particle size
• distribution by number
• 3.10 Conditions governing a weight size
• determination
• 3.10.1 Illustrative example of the
• calculation of a size distribution by weight
• 3.11 Quantitative image analysis
• 3.11.1 Calibration of image analyzers
• 3.11.2 Experimental procedures
• 3.11.3 Commercial quantitative image analysis systems.
• 3.11.4 On-line microscopy
• 3.12 Electron microscopy
• 3.13 Transmission electron microscopy
• 3.13.1 Specimen preparation for TEM
• 3.13.2 Replica and shadowing techniques
• 3.13.3 Chemical analysis
• 3.14 Scanning electron microscopy
• 3.15 Other scanning electron microscopy techniques
• 3.16 Errors involved in converting a
• number to a volume count
• 4 Particle size analysis by sieving
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.2 Woven-wire and punched plate sieves
• 4.3 Electroformed micromesh sieves
• 4.4 Standard sieves
• 4.5 Mathematical analysis of the sieving process
• 4.6 Calibration of sieves
• 4.7 Sieving errors
• 4.8 Methods of sieving
• 4.9 Amount of sample
• 4.10 Hand sieving
• 4.11 Machine sieving
• 4.12 Wet sieving
• 4.12.1 Manual
• 4.12.2 Wet sieving by machine
• 4.13 Air-Jet sieving
• 4.14 The Sonic Sifter
• 4.15 The Seishin Robot Sifter
• 4.16 Automatic systems
• 4.16.1 The Gradex particle size analyzer
• 4.16.2 Labcon automatic sieve system
• 4.17 Ultrasonic sieving
• 4.18 The sieve cascadograph
• 4.19 Felvation
• 4.20 Self organized sieves (SORSI)
• 4.21 Shape separation
• 4.22 Correlation with light scattering data
• 4.23 Conclusions
• 5 Fluid classification
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Assessment of classifier efficiency
• 5.3 Systems
• 5.4 Counter-flow equilibrium classifiers
• in a gravitational field-elutriators
• 5.5 Cross-flow gravitational classification
• 5.5.1 The Warmain Cyclosizer
• 5.5.2 The Humboldt particle size analyzer TDS
• 5.6 Counter-flow centrifugal classifiers
• 5.7 Cross-flow centrifugal classifiers
• 5.8 Zig-zag classifiers
• 5.9 Cross-flow elbow classifier
• 5.10 Fractionation methods for particle
• size measurement
• 5.11 Hydrodynamic chromatography
• 5.12 Capillary hydrodynamic fractionation
• 5.13 Capillary zone electrophoresis
• 5.14 Size exclusion chromatography
• 5.15 Field flow fractionation
• 5.15.1 Sedimentation field flow fractionation
• 5.15.2 Time-delayed-exponential SF3
• 5.15.3 Thermal field flow fractionation
• 5.15.4 Magnetic field flow fractionation
• 5.15.5 Flow field flow fractionation
• 5.15.6 Steric field flow fractionation
• 5.16 The Matec electro-acoustic system EAS-8000
• 5.17 Continuous SPLIT fractionation
• 5.18 Classification by decantation
• 6 Interaction between fluids and particles
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Settling of a single homogeneous sphere under a gravitational force
• 6.2.1 Relationship between settling
• velocity and particle size
• 6.2.2 Calculation of particle size in
• the laminar flow region
• 6.3 Size limits for gravity sedimentation
• 6.3.1 Upper size limit
• 6.3.2 Lower size limit
• 6.4 Time for terminal velocity to be attained
• 6.5 Wall effects
• 6.6 Errors due to discontinuity of the fluid
• 6.7 Viscosity of a suspension
• 6.8 Non-rigid spheres
• 6.9 Non-spherical particles
• 6.9.1 Stokes region
• 6.9.2 Transition region
• 6.10 Relationship between drag coefficient
• and Reynolds number in the transition region
• 6.11 The turbulent flow region
• 6.12 Concentration effects
• 6.13 Hindered settling
• 6.13.1 Low concentration effects
• 6.13.2 High concentration effects
• 6.14 Electro-viscosity
• 6.15 Dispersion of powders
• 6.15.1 Dry powder dispersion
• 6.15.2 The use of glidants to improve
• flowability of dry powders
• 6.15.3 Wet powder dispersion
• 6.15.4 Role of dispersing agents
• 6.15.5 Wetting a powder
• 6.15.6 Determination of contact angle (Theta)
• 6.15.7 Deagglomerating wetted clumps
• 6.15.8 Suspension stability
• 6.15.9 Tests of dispersion quality
• 7 Sedimentation theory
• 7.1 Powder density
• 7.2 Liquid viscosity
• 7.3 Resolution of sedimenting suspensions
• 7.4 Concentration changes in a suspension settling under gravity
• 7.5 Relationship between density gradient
• and concentration
• 7.5.1 Hydrometers
• 7.6 Theory for the gravity photosedimentation technique
• 7.6.1 The Beer-Lambert law
• 7.6.2 The extinction coefficient
• 7.7 Theory for concentration determination
• with the x-ray gravitational sedimentation technique
• 7.8 Theory for mass oversize distribution
• determination for cumulative, homogeneous, gravitational sedimentation
• 7.9 Stokes equation for centrifugal sedimentation
• 7.9.1 General theory
• 7.10 Stokes diameter determination for
• cumulative and incremental line-start techniques
• 7.10.1 Incremental, line-start,
• centrifugal technique
• 7.10.2 Homogeneous, cumulative,
• centrifugal technique
• 7.10.3 Sedimentation distance small
• compared with distance from centrifuge axis
• 7.11 Line-start technique using a photocentrifuge
• 7.11.1 Introduction
• 7.11.2 Homogeneous mode
• 7.11.3 Line-start mode
• 7.12 Theory for mass oversize distribution
• determination for cumulative, homogeneous,
• centrifugal sedimentation
• 7.13 Theory for mass oversize distribution
• determination for incremental, homogeneous,
• centrifugal sedimentation
• 7.13.1 General theory
• 7.13.2 Variable time method
• 7.13.3 Variable inner radius (pipette withdrawal)
• 7.13.4 Variable measurement radius
• (scanning x-ray centrifuge)
• 8 Sedimentation methods of particle size
• measurement
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 Homogeneous incremental gravitational sedimentation
• 8.2.1 The pipette method of Andreasen
• 8.2.2 The photosedimentation technique
• 8.2.3 X-ray sedimentation
• 8.2.4 Hydrometers and divers
• 8.3 Homogeneous cumulative gravitational sedimentation
• 8.3.1 Introduction
• 8.3.2 Balances
• 8.3.3 Sedimentation columns
• 8.4 Line-start incremental gravitational sedimentation
• 8.4.1 Photosedimentation
• 8.5 Line-start cumulative gravitational sedimentation
• 8.5.1 Introduction
• 8.5.2 Methods
• 8.6 Homogeneous incremental centrifugal sedimentation
• 8.6.1 Introduction
• 8.6.2 The Simcar pipette disc centrifuge
• 8.6.3 The Ladal pipette disc centrifuge
• 8.6.4 The Ladal x-ray disc centrifuge
• 8.6.5 The Du Pont/Brookhaven?Create scanning
• x-ray disc centrifugal sedimentometer (BI-XDC)
• 8.6.6 The BI-DCP disc (photo)centrifuge
• 8.7 Cuvet photocentrifuges
• 8.8 Homogeneous cumulative centrifugal sedimentation
• 8.8.1 Methods
• 8.9 Line-start incremental centrifugal sedimentation
• 8.9.1 Disc photocentrifuges
• 8.10 Line-start cumulative centrifugal sedimentation
• 8.10.1 MSA analyzer
• 8.11 Particle size analysis using
• non-invasive dielectric sensors
• 8.12 Conclusions
• 9 Stream scanning methods of particle size
• measurement
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 The electrical sensing zone method
• (The Coulter Principle)
• 9.2.1 Introduction
• 9.2.2 Operating principle
• 9.2.3 Theory for the electrical sensing
• zone method
• 9.2.4 Effect of particle shape and orientation
• 9.2.5 Pulse shape
• 9.2.6 Effect of coincidence
• 9.2.7 Multiple aperture method for powders having a wide size range
• 9.2.8 Calibration
• 9.2.9 Carrying out a mass balance
• 9.2.10 Oversize counts on a mass basis
• using the Coulter Counter
• 9.2.11 Apparatus
• 9.2.12 Limitations of the method
• 9.2.13 Coulter Multisizer mass balance
• calculation for BCR 70 standard quartz powder
• 9.3 Fiber length analysis
• 9.4 Optical particle counters
• 9.4.1 Aerometrics Eclipse particle size analyzer
• 9.4.2 Hiac/Royco
• 9.4.3 Kratel Partascope
• 9.4.4 Kratel Partograph
• 9.4.5 Climet
• 9.4.6 Particle Measuring Systems
• 9.4.7 Flowvision
• 9.4.8 Polytec HC (high concentration
• optical counter)
• 9.4.9 Lasentec
• 9.4.10 Galai CIS
• 9.4.11 Spectrex Prototron
• 9.4.12 Spectrex PCT-1 laser particle
• counter
• 9.4.13 Procedyne
• 9.4.14 Kane May
• 9.4.15 Met One
• 9.4.16 Erdco acoustical counter
• 9.4.17 Micro Pure Systems acoustic
• particle monitors (Monitek)
• 9.4.18 Rion laser based liquidborne
• particle counter
• 9.4.19 Faley Status 8000
• 9.4.20 Kowa Nanolyzer(TM) PC-30 and PC-500
• 9.4.21 Malvern Autocounters
• 9.4.22 Particle Sizing Systems
• Accusizer(TM)
• 9.4.23 AWK electronic sieve analyzer
• 9.4.24 PMT universal size distribution
• measuring systems
• 9.4.25 Canty Vision System
• 9.4.26 Contamination Control Systems
• 9.5 Aerodynamic time-of flight measurement
• 9.5.1 Amherst API Aerosizer
• 9.5.2 The TSI Aerodynamic Particle Sizer
• APS 33B
• 9.6 Laser phase/Doppler principle
• 9.6.1 BIRAL PD-Lisatek and L2F
• 9.6.2 Hosokawa Mikropul E-Spart Analyzer
• 9.6.3 Aerometrics phase/Doppler particle analyzer (APDPA)
• 9.6.4 Dantec Particle Dynamic Analyzer
• 9.7 Interferometers
• 9.7.1 The TSI Liquitrak(TM)
• interferometer
• 9.8 Flow ultramicroscope
• 9.8.1 ISPA image analysis system
• 9.9 Measurement of the size distribution
• of drops in dispersions
• 9.10 Dupont electrolytic grain size analyzer
• 9.11 TSI condensation particle counter
• 9.12 TSI diffusion battery
• 9.13 TSI diffusional particle sizer
• 9.14 Differential mobility analyzer (DMA)
• 9.15 Scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS)
• 9.16 Atmospheric particle counters
• 10 Field scanning methods of particle size
• measurement
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Effect of comminution on particle
• size distribution
• 10.3 Single point analyzers
• 10.3.1 Static noise measurement
• 10.3.2 Ultrasonic attenuation.
• 10.3.3 Beta-ray attenuation
• 10.3.4 X-ray attenuation and fluorescence
• 10.3.5 Counter-flow classifiers
• 10.3.6 Hydrocyclones
• 10.3.7 The cyclosensor
• 10.3.8 Automatic sieving machines
• 10.3.9 Gas flow permeametry
• 10.3.10 Correlation techniques
• 10.4 Low angle laser light scattering (LALLS)
• 10.4.1 Introduction
• 10.4.2 Theoretical basis for LALLS
• instruments
• 10.4.3 Commercial instruments
• 10.5 Optical incoherent space frequency analysis
• 10.6 Small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS)
• 10.7 Ultrasonic attenuation
• 10.8 Photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS)
• 10.8.1 Introduction
• 10.8.2 Principles
• 10.8.3 Through dynamic light scattering
• 10.8.4 Particle size
• 10.8.5 Concentration effects
• 10.8.6 Particle interaction
• 10.8.7 Particle size effects
• 10.8.8 Polydispersity
• 10.8.9 The controlled reference method
• 10.8.10 Commercial equipment
• 10.8.11 Discussion
• 10.8.12 Diffusion wave spectroscopy (DWS)
• 10.9 Insitec Ensemble Particle
• Concentration-Size (EPCS) Systems
• 10.10 Turbo-Power Model TPO-400
• 10.11 Turbidity
• 10.12 Transient turbidity
• 10.13 Concentration monitors
• 10.14 Shape discrimination
• 11 Industrial applications of particle size
• measurement
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Industrial diamonds
• 11.3 Control of oversize particles
• 11.4 Starry night
• 11.5 Control of adhesive additives
• 11.6 Video-tape
• 11.7 Curve fitting
• 11.8 Effect of size distribution on filter efficiency
• 11.9 Predicting pigment gloss and hiding power
• 11.10 Strength of engineering plastics
• 11.11 Homogeneity control of ceramic paste
• 11.12 Flowability
• 11.13 Elimination of intra-lot variability
• by mixing
• 11.14 Mixing and segregation
• 11.15 Comminution
• 11.16 Attrition
• 11.17 Instrument evaluation
• 11.17.1 Introduction
• 11.17.2 Evaluation procedure
• 11.17.3 Definition of accuracy
• 11.17.4 Definition of reproducibility
• 11.17.5 Mean accuracy and reproducibility
• 11.17.6 Discussion
• 11.18 Summary
• Appendix Manufacturers and suppliers
• Author index

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